GOD AS FATHER: THE MALENESS OF GOD

It is fashionable today to try to avoid sexist language in theology, despite the Bible’s consistent use of the masculine pronoun when referring to God. Although such an attempt has largely been engendered by modem culture, the maleness of God is not simply a hangover from a patriarchal society, but reflects a fundamental maleness in God’s dealing with man. It emphasises the idea of redemption by grace alone over against creation, and such aspects as the adoption of Christians as sons. The maleness of Christ likewise has not simply been cultural, but is sipiificant theologically. This is not to deny any femininity in God, but to assert that male features predominate. Such an idea does not reduce the status of women, but rather an emphasis on redemption raises it. Raising the status of women in society would in fact reduce the pressure to demasculinize God.


IN TRO D U CTIO N
The Anglican Church is currently in a state of controversy, as they have been for quite a time, over the question o f the ordination of women.The argum ents and implications are well known, such as the effect that such ordination would have on relations with the R om an Catholic Church.Typically it is argued th at priests are m ale in so far as they stand in the place of Christ and the Father, and a woman "clearly" cannot do that (Packer, 1977:80).On the oth er hand, it is frequently asserted that as G od him self cannot be either male or female, so likewise a priest or m inister can be of either sex.The question must, however, be put as to w hether this assertion of the non-maleness of G od is in fact justified.
The non-sexual n atu re o f G od is virtually axiom atic in m odern theology.T o quote popular author, Richard Foster, I should at the outset note the special problem of the personal pronoun when referring to God.I think it is obvious to all that God is not a male deity as opposed to a female deity.God is beyond and includes our distinctions of sexuality.As long ago as the 14th century, Juliana of Norwich declared, "As truly as God is our Father, so truly is God our Mother* (Foster, 1987:ix).
F o ster is apologizing for sexist language, which in m odern theological w riting is forbidden, believing, how ever, th at a co rrect usage is "semantically awkward and Koers 55 (2) 1990:259-275 aesthetically abhorrent" as well as failing to express God's greatness.Quere (1985:13) here makes an interesting suggestion.As language pertaining to God must be in a unique sense, a return to capitalizing the pronoun, would both remind the reader of this and be grammatically satisfactory.The maleness o f God is, however, as is now fashionable, denied.
Such a denial has two roots.Firstly it is felt that as God does not reproduce as we do, H e cannot exhibit sexuality.However, as will become clear, sexuality involves more than the ability to reproduce, and some of these aspects are indeed characteristic of God.Secondly, it is felt that ascribing maleness to God was due to the superiority of the male in pre-modem and especially Biblical culture.As modern culture is more enlightened about recognising the equality of the sexes, so the maleness of God is an anachronism which should be disposed of.It will be seen, however, that the Biblical maleness of God had a deeper root than culture, and moreover, that the equality o f the sexes is not so much hindered by the maleness of God as supported by it.

Biblical culture
In Biblical times, so it is asserted, there was no questioning of the supremacy o f the male.Probably going back to primitive times when sheer strength was vital, the male was dominant, and so society was patriarchal.An alternative modern explanation is basically similar, but sees the origin of the maleness of the deity in a Freudian analysis (e.g.Hamerton-Kelly, 1979).1 It would have been unthinkable therefore to refer to God as female.Kings and priests were also male.
However, Biblical culture, and particularly Old Testament culture, was not so monolithically male-dominated (cf.also Hamerton-Kelly, 1979:7).Even in the monarchy, the queen mother had power, and occasionally absolute power, although only when there was no king.The culture was not rigidly male, yet God is consistently referred to as male.
Rather, the maleness of God is emphasized in Israel not because of a cultural pattern, but as a contrast to the surrounding theologies (cf.Bloesch, 1985:39).Israel, after occupying Canaan, was always under threat from the local gods and had to assert distinctiveness.Emphatically, a major aspect of the local religion involved sexuality, which could be perceived as a threat to a very different concept of God.On the one hand, the Baalim were male, with the concurrent ideas of power, victory in war and so on, but they are always seen in conjunction with the Astaroth, the females, and it is the union of the two, guaranteeing fertility of women, animals and the land, which is funda mental to Canaanite religion, and utterly rejected by Israel.
The point at issue was, and is, fundamental.In C anaanite theology, the action o f God is directly linked to the prosperity of the land and animals, and G od can be m ade to act by means of hum an action.The emphasis is upon biological existence and procreation and so emphasizes the female.The function of the worshipper is likened to the then current concept of the male.In a way often enacted in cultic prostitution, he plants a seed, but the m other enables it to grow.2In contrast to Baalism, Israelite theology rather stressed the sovereignty of God.G od provides fertility and prosperity, but can not in any sense be forced to do so.Israel em phasized G od's transcendence and so denied a direct association with fertility (H ayter, 1987:14).H e chose and redeem ed Israel, but this was not due to anything that they had done.Thus while Baalism emphasized creation (or rather procreation), Israel, while still por traying G od as Creator, rather sees God as a sovereign redeem er, entering into special relationship beyond biological existence.Perhaps that can be illustrated by the fourth com m andm ent, which stresses the sovereignty of G od in the injunction to keep the Sabbath.In Exodus, it is because of creation, as in six days God created and rested on the seventh, but in the later Deuteronom ic recension, the reason given is the redem p tion in the Exodus, and the link with the seven days of the Passover feast.Thus, while both religions are bisexual, the Canaanite is predominantly female, while the Israelite is predom inantly male.The other pole is not denied, just as a hum an person is really bisexual, with both male and female characteristics (e.g.W inter, 1986W inter, :145, or Edwards, 1981:32):32).W hat m atters is what is dominant.It will be seen that a redemptive religion presupposes a male deity, whereas a religion emphasizing existence and procreation is likely to see G od as female.
F em inist w riters, then, see New T estam en t p ractice as conditio n ed by the maledominated Jewish and G reek cultures.However, the Jesus who had such a concern for women, so out of keeping with his culture, categorically gave G od an unequivocable m ale title.It is particularly significant that Jesus nearly always addressed G od as "Father", as there was little real precedent for this (Hamerton-Kelly, 1979:20, 53f), but cf.M oltm ann-W endel (1986:100), who asserts th at Jesus' use o f "Abba" cannot be understood patriarchally.D espite going against so much that was dear to his fellow Jews, there is no hint that he ever questioned reference to G od as male.

M odern society
It is no accident that a society which is moving away from Christianity and its doctrine and values also stresses the fem ale, because the fem ale is p articu larly linked to existence and procreation.M odern culture finds its philosophical base in creation, or rather, in existence.An "enlightenment" philosophy sees men and women as equal as hum an beings, thus simply on the basis of their existence.In so doing, it causes an emphasis on the individual rather than the community.For this reason a woman tends to become discontented about being supported by her husband (relying on his "grace"), and wants her own income as an individual on the same basis as a man.Inequality in the work sphere was a prime driving force for the feminist movement (e.g.Moltmann-W endel, 1986:130-However, such a philosophy, which minimizes sexual differences and the complementary roles of the sexes, is ultimately in danger of degrading women.
Because o f the fact of childbirth and the consequent traditional role o f the m other to care for her children, she tends to interrupt any career and become less advanced in it.
It is only the rare woman who overcomes this, or even wants to.M oreover, of course, the w om an is constantly h am pered in her com petition with m en purely because of differences in strength and physical make-up.
The Christian Church, on the other hand, with stress upon redem ption3 rather than on existence, has had the effect of raising women to equality with men, because both men and women were redeem ed in exactly the same way, through the redem ption purcha sed by the death of Christ and through their adoption as sons and daughters o f God.H ence Paul can assert equality (G alatians 3:28), but still acknowledge the distinctive role of the sexes.It was the Christian religion, with stress on redem ption, which raised the status of woman in the ancient world.

R ED EM PTIO N AND T H E MAUENESS O F G O D
It is not my purpose to argue that the essence of Christianity is redem ption.This is my presupposition.R ather it is to argue that given such a supposition, the maleness of the F ath er follows.This is not, however, to say that the idea of creatio n relates to the fem ale only.Edwards (1981:27), in a spirited defence of the feminine in God, asserts th at creatio ex nihilo in fact emphasizes the m aleness of God.I do not feel that her argum ent is persuasive, b u t it is a possibility.I am not therefore arguing for G o d 's m aleness because th e B ible says so, although I do believe th a t this is a valid and weighty point which cannot simply be disregarded.H owever, the m aleness of the Father is fundam ental to the idea of redemption, because redem ption involves the idea of adoption, and the relation of adoption, although not exclusive to a father, is charac teristic of his role.T he relationship betw een Israel and G od is not primarily one of procreation but of election and adoption as sons (Hamerton-Kelly, 1979:31).The few Old T estam ent references to G od as F ather are more likely to refer to adoption than to b egetting (H ayter, 1987:26).Paul argues (R om ans 8:14f, G alatian s 4:5) th at a C hristian is such because he has been adopted as a son, not simply because he exists; my argum ent is that this means God is Father, and only secondarily Mother.
An illustration should help.A woman conceives and carries a child, finally giving birth to it.She is in no doubt th at the child is hers, even in m odern p ractice w here a newborn baby is often whisked away and only later returned to the mother.T here is a bond, an identification, a full knowledge o f intim ate relationship.B ut w hat of the male?H e did have som ething to do with the origin of the child, but a long time ago, and since then he has really had no role.He is now presented with a baby and is faced with a choice.U nlike the woman, he does not know for certain th a t the child is his.
(This was particularly true before m odern science, as in Biblical tim es.) H e can only accept it on trust.In effect he has to adopt, to accept the baby as his, before life can proceed.H e procreated, now he must adopt, and if the la tte r is not done, w hether consciously o r w ithout thought, no full relationship can exist betw een him and the baby.Adoption and paternity are therefore connected, they are integral parts of each other.As Q uere rem arks, "the designation 'F ath er' in the Bible has m ore to do with G od as R edeem er than G od as C reator'1 (Q uere, 1985:5).The relation of the mother, therefore, although she must also adopt in a sense, is mainly based on the procreative, that of the father, although he also procreates, is based on the redemptive or adoptive.
The choice of the male is stressed as against the passive acceptance o f the female.
A second example, this time from the lips of Jesus.H e told the story o f the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:1 If), w here the son strained the relationship of procreation betw een him self and his father.O n his return he was fully expecting to be rejected because of his action, or at best to be hired as a servant.The wonder of the story is that the father went beyond expectation, and adopted him again as son.It is this act of adoption which Jesus brought forward here as a characteristic of God as Father, a love receiving with out necessary reason.
The necessarily different relationship that exists between a father and his son as com pared to a m other and a son is further seen to be characteristic o f G od as a Father rather than as a Mother.
Firstly, as is seen in the parable of the Prodigal Son, the characteristic of a father is to give w ithout being obliged to.Christian theology emphasizes this aspect of God: we a re saved by grace, we c a n n o t e a rn th e fav o u r o f G od, it is given as a gift (e.g.Ephesians 2:8,9).This aspect is more characteristic o f a father rath er than a mother.Initially of course, in the sexual act itself, despite the fact that both partners are giving of themselves to the other, and both are receiving, the heart of the m atter is the gift of the semen by the male to the female.M oreover, the initiative basically lies with the male.At the extrem e level, a man can force a woman to be pregnant, but a woman cannot force a man.Once conception has occured, moreover, a child will normally be born without any further conscious effort, indeed it is preventing this which is difficult.H er action is not one of grace but is forced.Furthermore, once the child is born, it is the role of the m other to care for and nurture the child.It is argued nowadays that that could equally be the duty of the father, but the difference in relationship means that the m other is usually the one who does this.
It is a rare m other who can trust the care of a child to another, but fathers do not have the same attitude.This means that the mother gives to the son, but under a real sense of obligation; the father also gives, but for him it is much m ore a m atter o f his own choice; w ithout the same bond, it becomes a m atter of grace.
Secondly, again due to the different relationship betw een the d ifferent parents and their son, discipline, at least in the final analysis, falls to the father.T h e m other can discipline, and usually does, but it is a rare m other who can really punish.A father, on the other hand, being less involved because of his adoptive relationship, can, and does, discipline.Such discipline is possible both because th ere is a relationship, b u t also because it is primarily adoptive rather than procreative (c.f.H ebrews 12:5f, w here the writer stresses discipline as a characteristic of being a son).Hamerton-Kelly (1979:45) observes that every Old Testam ent reference to the fatherhood of G od is in the context o f discipline.
A n incidental point, b u t not a m inor one, is th at a view of faith which tends to the sacram ental em phasizes the fem inine, so, for example, the E ucharist is viewed in a sense as feeding on God, as a m other suckles a child.However, a view which em pha sizes grace would rather see the Lord's Supper as a rem embrance and may then prefer to see G od as m ale.It is significantly the "sacram ental" churches which are most concerned with the ordination of women.
Related to this is that an emphasis on redem ption must accompany a realisation of the distance betw een G od and man, G od's transcendence.If the need for such redem p tion is denied, there will be a tendency to replace G od's transcendence by immanence, a move leading to pantheism (o r panentheism ), and ultim ately to pagan witchcraft, which is indeed evidenced in some forms of feminism (c.f.R uether, 1983b:64).

Christ and the Father
It may be objected at this point that the prime aspect of the Fatherhood of G od is in relation to Christ rather than to men, and that this would appear to be more similar to creation than to redem ption.4Thus, even when C hrist referred to his "Father", this would not be seen as implying maleness, but only the capacity to generate, so could m ean bo th m ale and fem ale o r n eith er.As M oltm ann (1983:53) says, G od is a "m otherly Father".The term father therefore, in respect of G od would need to be desexualized, as indeed many are trying to do by the use of other terms.
However, such a line of thought makes the existence of the Christ independent of the incarnation and so devalues the human, resulting in Monophysitism.In a sense Jesus only com m enced existence in Mary, and yet this does not deny a d octrine of p re existence even for humans (H ebrew s 7:10), so how much m ore for the Son o f God.M oreover, the relationship betw een Christ and the Father is not simply one of beget ting or generation, but includes other aspects of paternity.
Firstly, the Bible records the earthly origin of Jesus by a virgin birth.T he whole account is of course being questioned, for a num ber of reasons.However, I simply want to show the implication of the story as it stands for the gender of God.It hardly needs to be said here that if the birth o f Jesus involves one hum an parent, that one must be female, and therefore G od is understood in the story as the male.To have a human father and divine m other is totally impossible, and the suggestion blasphemous (Bray, 1986:315) Secondly, a realization that a full paternal relationship involves m ore than simply a question of origins explains the vexed question o f such texts as Acts 2:36 and Romans 1:4.Although some early thinkers believed that such texts proclaim ed adoptionism, the granting of deity to a human Jesus, the Church rapidly condemned such teaching as heretical, as being inconsistent with the deity of Christ.However, what the texts refer to is not a bestowal of divinity as was suggested, but a recognition as such, just as a father needs to acknowledge paternity.T he baptism o f Jesus is then seen not as a bestowal of divinity in the shape of the dove, but as a recognition of divinity and an indication of the start of a new phase of life.Similarly the problem of when the calls of Jerem iah and Paul occurred may be answered in accordance with the sam e principle (Jerem iah 1:5, Galatians 1:15); what we have is a recognition of an existing state, but which needed acceptance by the called.
T hirdly, C h rist pro b ab ly had to b e m ale, d u e to the c u ltu re in to w hich he was incarnated; a woman would not have been able to do what he did.However, if Christ is in the image o f the invisible G od (H ebrew s 1:3 etc.), and this is to be seen as non gendered or dual gendered because his F ather is, this at least opens up the possibility of an accusation of Nestorianism and I believe O xford-C arpenter (1984:11) could be accused of this.The divine C hrist is divided from the hum an Jesus.R ather, a true incarnation m eans th a t the Son o f G od is just that, a Son, and so G od the F ath er likewise must be in some respects male.G erald Bray, (1987:27) interestingly turns this around, arguing that Jesus had to be male as the Father is male.Likewise, although it has been suggested th at the Spirit is fem inine, this is not likely.Suggestions for the femininity of the Spirit come from D art or M oltmann (Q uere, 1985:7) (cf.also Bloesch, 1985:6f).Bloesch (1985:33) points out that spirit in Hebrew, although grammatically feminine, takes a masculine adjective o r pronoun, as can the otherwise neuter word in Greek.It is also incorrect to replace the Trinity of Father, Son and Spirit by "Creator, R ed eem er, and Sustainer" as in some m odern liturgies (Q u ere, 1985(Q u ere, :10, Bloesch, 1985:47, 50f:47, 50f).Both suggestions divide the essence of the G odhead, either by different sexes, o r by different functions.All three persons have the same essence, all three redeem , not only the Son.Now it may be responded that the sex of a person does not belong to the real humanity of th a t p erso n -oth erw ise, and this is a typical fem inist arg u m en t, it w ould be im possible for a m ale C hrist to save w om en.He could not su b stitu te for them .Nevertheless, Christ stated that the sex of a person is irrelevant for salvation and does not affect the afterlife (M atthew 22:30).He does not, however, say that their sex is not recognisable and that they are completely androgynous, only that m arriage becomes irrelevant in heaven.This is probably because in heaven there is full companionship with all, no exclusion from others being necessary (m arriage is a "forsaking all others" in o rd er to give full relationship to the one), and no need for p rocreation.In the afterlife the functions of marriage basically fall away.Sexuality, however, is so much part of a hum an personality th at it must belong to the very innermost being of all.A person cannot lose it without losing a large part of what makes him a person.Ruether (1983a: 12) notes the Gnostic myth of an original androgynous Adam, only divided into sexes at the Fall.Such an argument would make it possible for Christ also to be andro gynous like the New A dam (R om ans 5).However, C hrist is surely u nderstood to represent all the redeem ed, male and female, even though he is male (R om ans 5:12f), just as in the story of creation, Adam includes Eve.
Fourthly, the vitality and the closeness of human sexual relations are recognised by the image of Israel as the wife of God (e.g.H osea) or in the New Testam ent, of the church as the bride of Christ.The picture is clearly of God and Christ as male, and never as fem ale, even if that should be theoretically possible.The m etaphor here, however, could be due to the cultural situation at the times when it was man who sought for and supported a wife.
In the light o f this imagery, G od is seen as fath er as related to m other, as well as related to son, and not just the latter, as would be more acceptable to feminists.This has a very practical implication for Christians as the Church, the Bride of Christ, for the production o f children requires both a father and a m other.Thus for a person to becom e a C hristian there is a necessity not only of an act of G od, both creative and adoptive, but also the cooperative agency of the Church in witness.I do not believe that it is significant that if this metaphor were pressed home this makes Christians sons of Christ and so grandsons of the Father; a grandson can equally be term ed a son.Christ the Liberator M odern liberation theology sees Christianity in a socio-political light as justification for a struggle against the oppression of the poor.U sing such Biblical m aterial as the Exodus, Luke 4:18 and the message of the prophets, it sees G od as being on the side of the poor and thus supporting a move which will b en efit them .F em inist theology readily identifies with this, seeing w omen also as the oppressed, so po o r women as doubly oppressed (R uether, 1983a: 137).Capitalism, the cause of much economic op pression, is also the cause of sexist oppression, at least in its basic ethos (B ruce & Duffield, 1976:14).
The argum ent is often that just as Christ becam e incarnate in order to redeem those oppressed by sin, he also becam e poor to redeem the poor.Thus the necessity for identification becam e stressed in theology.This was supported by the missiological technique whereby the evangelist became as closely identified with the target culture as possible in order to preach to it (c.f. 2 Corinthians 9:20f).However, such identifica tion, as well as being impossible in the full sense, may actually be counter-productive (just as evidence of a Christian culture and lifestyle may be an attraction to Christ).Likewise total identification with the poor m eans that one is as im potent as they often are to change their situation.Consequently it is also totally unnecessary for Christ to be identified as female in order to release the oppressed females.R epresentation and substitution need not imply identification.
In fact it was the unquestionably male Christ in the Early C hurch who achieved most for women's emancipation.M oreover, it is precisely what is implied by the fatherhood of God which spells liberation.On the one hand the relation of the adoption of Israel as G od's son is connected with th eir liberation from Egypt, but on the o th er hand, a relationship, both O ld and New T estam ent, based on grace, is liberating because it implies a free response and not a forced one.
It will be observed that my argum ents for the maleness o f the F ather have not touched w hat is probably regarded as the key issue, th at of the alleged superiority o f men to w om en.It is b eliev ed th a t th e B ible accep ts th e su p erio rity o f m en due to the prevalent culture, and th at this is simply transferred to the G odhead.F o r example Paul (the arch-chauvinist!) states that no woman is allowed to speak in the assembly (1 Corinthians 14:34,1 Timothy 2:11-12).The statements are possibly the opinion of Paul himself, but in the second case he does refer to the Genesis story of the creation and fall.H e is not simply accepting a cultural practice.These stories, however, do not reveal inferiority; the creation of women merely reflects the need of men not to be alone, and the fall does not exactly show the ability of A dam to resist tem ptation.
What is in view is not a hierarchical order but a difference in role.
Nevertheless the Bible would appear to endorse the practice of culture.Paul is quite explicit"... the head of woman is her husband .Hayter (1987:120) points out that 1 Corinthians 11:3 uses the word "head" which implies "source" not "rank", whereas he could well have used kurios ("Lord").D erivedness does not necessarily imply subor dination.
As I have already stated, it was the Christian Church which elevated women in human culture and it is only in C hrist th at she will achieve a position o f equality due to the recognition o f equal redem ption.It is significant that it is baptism , not circumcision, which is the rite of entry into the church.Outside the church, despite all the efforts of the feminists, I do not believe there will ever be real equality, simply because men and women a re different.Some outstanding women will achieve, but basically inherent roles are dominant.Such inequality is only overcome by redemption.
It is not ascribing fatherhood to G od which reinforces the dominance of the male, but because G od is father, this should change o ur idea of fatherhood which could o th er wise be oppressive due to inherited culture.The fatherhood o f G od com bats sexism.
T o quote Hamerton-Kelly,

Anthropomorphism
The Biblical references to human features o f God, such as hands, feet, face, etc. are rejected as literally true by most theologians.God is spirit, and therefore such references are inappropriate to God.Any idea of maleness would then likewise be rejected.A further, but related, feminist objection to the Fatherhood of God is that it is idolatrous in that it confers a human characteristic on God.Nevertheless, even if the crude idea o f God actually having hands is to be rejected, yet the idea behind the anthropomorphism may not be.God acts, if not by hands as man does, but certainly effectively.Is not the point at issue that any anthropomorphism is dangerous not because of the language but because o f the fear o f limiting God to just that image?
The fact that images of God were forbidden by the second commandment was because imaging God is a particular way, although not wrong in itself, was wrong if it excluded other images.The Bible, after all is full o f imagery.God is an eagle (Exodus 19:4) but not just an eagle; he is a bull (Numbers 24:8) but more than that.
Our problem is that when we say m an, we exclude woman and vice versa.Our defini tion is negative as well as positive, but this idea cannot apply to God.To say he is father is correct but this must not exclude all idea of the female.It is interesting to note that the most aggressive feminist movements actually find no place for men, whereas the more moderate either stress inherent equality or enhance femininity as being complementary to maleness.However, any term when applied to God must be clearly defined and will generally have a specific use.It must be obvious that referring to God as Father means that there are some similarities between God and a human parent, but also that such similarity is more characteristic of the male.However, there is no idea of either restricting God to this idea or divinizing human maleness (see Quere, 1985: 6f).I would, however, question his distinction between the nam e o f God as male and the metaphorical reference to God as female.

God as more than male
It would seem that a Biblical religion is forced into a belief, in som e sense, of the maleness of the Father.Therefore, feminist theologians are often driven outside the Bible to seek su pport for the idea o f a non-m ale G od. R u eth er (1983a:21) cites S hakers (e.g.1983a:133), M ontanism (1983a:130), G nosticism (1983a:127), etc. H ow ever, she believes th at Biblical religion is irredeem ably patriarchal, so th at a resource for a fem inine view of G od can only be found outside the Bible (R uether, 1983a:39).She explicitly draws on wider source material than the Biblical, and Oxford-C arpenter (1984:13) also points out that goddess worship has an ancient but extra-Biblical source.However, although Oxford-Carpenter admits that the major emphasis in the Bible is male, she believes that fruitful approaches (Oxford-Carpenter, 1984:24), which either stress the female as well as the male in God, or desex or depersonalize the Godhead, do have a Biblical warrant.
While acknowledging the dominance of the male image in the Bible, it must be noted that G od sometimes expresses characteristics more typical of the feminine.Examples of this are D euteronom y 32:18 and Isaiah 46:3, which use the image of giving birth, although only the form er is realy explicit (but which of course could be interpreted in a non-m aternal way).M ore freq u en t are pictures of the m other bird caring for the young (e.g.Psalm 17:8) and references such as Isaiah 66:13, which compare God to a mother without being as explicit as Deuteronomy 32:18.
O xford-C arpenter (1984:17) also claims that parables such as that o f the Prodigal son and the lost coin also show maternal characteristics.It is also likely that "compassion", such as in Psalm 51:1 and Isaiah 66:12, is connected to the H ebrew word for "womb" (c.f.H ayter, 1987:23).Such observations a re valu ab le as they p rev en t den ial of attributes such as compassion to God, which is clearly wrong.Nevertheless, it is clear th at such referen ces a re very infrequent, not surprisingly in view o f th e Biblical rejection of fertility religion, and are also poetic, so they should n o t be taken too literally com pared to ascriptions such as fatherhood to G od which occur in a nonpoetic context.
Edwards (1981:27) believes that although the Bible clearly portrays G od (symbolically) as m ale, G o d 's fem aleness com es through in such aspects as the Shekina, wisdom (sophia) or sp irit (ruach) which are all gram m atically fem inine.T his should not surprise us as they are all aspects of the way God relates to mankind, and relatedness is the basic fem inist characteristic.It was probably only the fact that C hrist was male, which m eant the logos symbolism was preferred to the female sofla, even though both really refer to aspects of the same ("androgynous") reality.The identification of Christ with the feminine "wisdom" of the Old Testam ent has contributed to a recognition of the fem inine in G od, for exam ple in Ju lian of Norwich.H ow ever, although she referred to Christ as "mother", she was careful to refer to the first person consistently as "Father" (Bloesch, 1985:47).
In any case, as m odern studies on homosexuality have shown, sexual identity is not absolute.As O x ford-C arpenter (1984:9n) w rites, "...I have aw akened to my own androgyny".T here is no such thing as an absolute m ale or fem ale but all have the characteristics of both.H ayter (1987:38) helpfully points out that the only m aternal and paternal functions which are not interchangeable belong to physical reproduction, but adds that these aspects are never predicated of God. Phipps (1975:515) interes tingly claims that the Hebrew plural Elohim refers to both the male and the female in God, noting that it could be used of goddesses as well as God.Thus as it is argued (e.g. by R uether, 1983a:36) that the creation narrative states that male and female equally are in G od's image, which is therefore androgynous.Such an interpretaion, however, com pletely ignores Paul's com m ent in 1 C orinthians 11:7, w here he specifically says that it was the man who was created in G o d 's image.Nevertheless, that man at the same time included woman.Similarly, God, as male but including the female, created the man, including the woman.
In this case it is really irrelevant to try to demonstrate the feminine in God; what con cerns us is that which is most characteristic which I believe, for G od, is the male.W hat must not be done is to divide God into male and female, as the G reek dualist divided m an into a spiritual mind (m ale?) and a passive in ferio r body (fem ale?) or then dominance must occur.

G od as asexual
A further approach is to see the male imagery as just that, imagery; a result of the necessity due to language o f giving G od som e kind of sex.T he Bible is, however, replete with images which are not sexual such as friend, liberator or teacher.Such are clearly personal, but are not at all conditioned by sexual connotations.Going yet fur th er is to depersonalize G od, noting pictures such as fire (e.g.Exodus 3, H ebrews 12:29, Acts 2).Barth's Revealer would come somewhere between the two.
These are valid pictures o f God, but of course their existence does not lead to a denial of the validity o f the descriptions which are more directly sexual.More particularly, as Foster (1987:91, andalso R uether, 1983a:36) argues, the creation o f man as male and female in the image of G od does mean that sexuality is part of G od himself.R uether (1983a:69) observes th at G od is not just a sexless abstract parent.Mary Daly, the "arch-feminist", correctly argues that personality must involve sexuality (which would then be male), hence, with her denial of the validity of the Biblical picture comes a denial of God's personality and even of his Being (Daly, 1973:33).God for her, as for Tillich, exists only in the sense of a verb, be-ing, and not as in any sense substantive.She epitomizes the logic of the position; God either does not exist, or exists, in some sense, as male.
Perhaps the main argument against the sexual nature of God is that it is meaningless as God does not procreate as we know it.Even in the story of the Virgin Birth, what actually happened must remain a mystery, as must the relationship between the prein carnate Christ and the incarnate Jesus.Nevertheless, even in human society, sexuality is expressed in many ways without the full intimate relationship leading to procreation.It is the confusion of these two, the relationship and the result of it, which has caused stress in the church from the Middle Ages to the Catholic Church o f today, where frequently the sexual act was condemned if not used for procreation, leading to the debate over contraception.Rather, the sexual act is both for the purposes of expressing an intimate relationship and for procreation.It is for this reason that God is seen as sexual, for there is no deeper relationship possible between human beings than that expressed in the sexual act.As God's desire is to have a full relationship with man, this is frequently expressed in sexual metaphors.This is why the emphasis in theology must be on redemption, which involves an intimate personal relationship, rather than on procreation, which may be very impersonal.
It is significant that in his discussion of the meaning of the image of God, Hall (1986) believes that relationship is the key idea, and, as his subtitle shows, a relationship to the world as dominion over it.My belief is then that sexuality is not incidental to this, as Bird (1981) argues, but integrally linked to it.

CONCLUSION
Basically the objection to regarding God as male is a cultural matter.Because women are oppressed by men, it is an additional problem, as well as a ground for such oppression, to regard God as male.If, on the other hand, society did treat men and women as essentially equal, there would be no fundamental reason to object to regarding God as male (or female).Society after all recognises without any hint of superiority or inferiority a difference in roles, and so accepts a virtual restriction to one sex in some occupations.There are few infant school teachers who are male, and neither are many coal miners fem ale, even though there are no restrictions.Society happily recognises a difference in role due to the different characteristics of the sexes, without an implied superiority.The same is true of G od. R egarding him as male, as this b e tte r reflects the action o f redem ption, should in no wise re n d e r the fem ale inferior in essence.
Nevertheless, a difference in role does tend to lead to views of rank, and thus is always a problem.For example, the simple reference to the Son of G od naturally leads to a nuance of subordination in some cultures (it is always difficult to teach the Trinity in African culture; hence the popularity of the Jehova's Witnesses), even though theology happily recognises equality in essence as distinct from difference in relation.Such recognition needs to be expressed more clearly in society.
The issue for Christians is therefore not to argue for the fem aleness or asexuality of God, but for the essential equality of men and women, w ithout a confusion of roles as is the case in some manifestations of feminism.My contention is that it is precisely the Christian doctrine of redem ption, so appropriate to the maleness of God, which gives women her dignity as equal to the male, as all are equally redeem ed and equally valu able in the sight of God.
If this is the case, should not the church o rdain w om en?I regret to confess th a t for me it is ju st not an issue, for I belong to a C hristian trad itio n th a t has little p roblem with the m inistry o f w om en.T h o se o f a m o re sa c ra m e n ta l p e rsu asio n , w ho m ust see the m in ister as re p re se n tin g C h rist, will n o d o u b t c o n tin u e to a rg u e, b u t for th o se w ho em phasize ra th e r the p rie sth o o d o f all believers, and th e m utual m inistry o f all to all can really dispense w ith a form al m inistry in any case.B ruce and D uffield (1976:1030.interalia, q u o te T illich to th e effect th a t "th ere a re in P ro te stan tism only laym en ...".T hose w ho m inister a re ra th e r those w ho a re called to d o so, w h eth er m ale o r fem ale, whose aim is to give Him all the glory.4. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIRD, P. 1981.Male and female He created them: Gen. 1:27b in (he context of the Priestly account of creation.Harvard Theological Review, Y , M .19*73.B eyond G o d Ihc F a th e r: to w ard s a P h ilo so p h y o f W o m e n 's L ib e ra tio n .B o sto n : Beacon.E D W A R D S , F. 1981.T h e D octrine of G od and ihc F em inine principle.Journal o f Theology fo r Southern Africa, 37:23-37.F O S T E R , R J .1987.M oney Sex and Power: (he C hallenge of the D isciplined Life.L o n d o n : H o d d e r & Stoughton.H A L L , D J .1986.Im ag in g G od: D o m in io n as S tew ard sh ip .G ran d R ap id s : E c rd m a n s / N ew Y ork : F rien d sh ip P ress for C om m issio n o n S tew ardship N ational Council o f th e C h u rc h e s o f C h rist in the USA.H A M E R T O N K E L L Y , R. 1979.G od th e F a th e r: T h e o lo g y and P a tria rc h y in th e le a c h in g o f Jesu s.P hiladelphia : F o rtre ss (O v ertu res to Biblical theology), H A Y T E R , M, 1987.T h e New E ve in C hrist: the use and abuse of the Bible in th e d e b a te ab o u t w om en in th e C hurch.L ondon : SPC K .M E T Z , J.B. & S C H 1 L L E B E E C K Z , E. 1983.G od as F a th e r.E d in b u rg h : T & T C lark / New Y ork : S eabury (C oncilium 143).M O L T M A N N , J .1983.T h e M o th erly F a th e r.Is T rin ita ria n P a trip a ssia n ism r e p la c in g T h e o lo g ic al P atriarch alism ?(In M etz, J.B, & Schillcnbceckz, E .G od as F a th e r.E din b u rg h : T & T C lark / N ew Y ork : S eab u ry (C oncilium 143).p, 51-56.)M O L T M A N N -W E N D E L , E .1986.A lan d flo w in g w ith m ilk an d h o ney: p e rs p e c tiv e s o n fem in ist theology, L ondon : SCM .O D D IE , W . 1984.W hat w ill h a p p e n to G o d ?F em in ism and th e R ec o n stru c tio n o f C h ris tia n B elief.L ondon : SPCK, O X F O R D -C A R P E N T E R , R, 1984.G en d er an d th e Trinity.Theology Today, 41(1 );7-25.P A C K E R , J,I. 1976, R ep re sen tativ e P riesth o o d .B ruce & D uffield.P H IP P S , W .E .1979.T h e Sex of G od. Journal o f Ecumenical Studies, 16:515-517.Q U E R E , R. 1985."Naming" G o d ' F a th e r".Currents in Theology and Mission, 12(1):5-14.R U E T H E R , R .R .1983a, Sexism and G od-talk: to w ard s a fem inist theology.B oston : B eaco n .R U E T H E R , R .R .1983b.T h e fem ale n a lu re o f G o d : a p ro b le m in c o n te m p o ra ry relig io u s life.(In M etz , J.B .& S chillebeeckz, E .E d in b u rg h : T & T C la rk j N ew Y o rk : S e a b u ry (C o n ciliu m 143).p, 61-68.)W IN T E R , R. 1986.H om osexuality.(In P alm er, B M ed icin e an d th e B ible.E x e te r • P a te rn o ste r , while with no father at all Jesus would not have been human.Bray adds that if Jesus had come from a heavenly m other's womb this would have implied inferiority, but more im portantly, that such an origin would m ean that Christians, as adopted children, could not possibly share the character and rights of the natural son. It is, incidentally, hardly possible to claim Mary as epitomizing the fem inist vision as giving b irth w ith o u t m ale agency(as S ara M aitlan d , cited in O d d ie [1984:85]).Maleness was involved, but not human maleness.
.. man was not made from woman ..." (1 C o rin th ian s 11:3, 8), "Wives be subject to your husbands" (E phesians 5:23) etc.However, Paul makes his rem ark in the context of a recognition of essential equality b ecause of red em p tio n , b u t also of a d ifference in ro le, as his explanation o f 1Corinthians 11:11 shows ("... in the Lord woman is not independent of man or man of woman ..." (my emphasis).Elsewhere he has to combat feelings of superiority in his illustration of the different roles of the parts of the body (1 Corinthians 12:14), and of course he is the author of the verse so loved by feminists "... there is neither male nor fem ale, for you are all one in C hrist Jesus" (G alatians 3:28).Again, this is in the context of redem ption, but, in addition, the verse does not say that all are equal, but that all are one.A continued difference in role is recognised.Beckwith (cited in O ddie, 1984:58) points out th a t even the 1 C orinthians passage does n o t indicate women's inferiority, because as C hrist's relation to the Father, and man's to Christ is not degrading, neither then is that of woman to man.