The rise and manifestation of globalism and its implications for science

The rise and manifestation of globalism and its implications for


Introduction
The concept globalism refers to the interdependent and interconnected character o f the contemporary world in all spheres such as politics, the economy, science and technology.It appears, however, as if the globalistic world order is a threat unto itself.This threat is manifested in numerous global crises such as the popu lation explosion, the extensive developmental disparities between First and Third World countries, the energy crisis, atomic warfare and the environmental crisis.

The rise and manifestation o f globalism and its implications fo r science
These are the most publicised problem s our global world is experiencing.My contention is that these and other problems, such as those o f a social, psycholo gical and agogic nature, are directly related to the rise o f globalism.These crises are the unbargained for side-effects o f the m odem W estern industrial and post industrial civilisation, and they arose from the absolutisation o f the natural scien tific mode o f thought.Now, in the late twentieth century these global crises, some scientists reason, have brought humanity to a turning point (Findley & Rothney, 1990:25;Capra, 1989;Peccei, 1981).The mode o f scientific thought which led to the establishment o f our high-tech, globalistic world, will have to undergo a radical re-orientation if we w ant to ensure a safe and meaningful future.
A re-orientation in scientific practice is, however, a complex and difficult issue because in scientific practice confusion appears to reign.This phenom enon exists because o f the many divergent paradigms and the fragmentation o f science into a multitude o f disciplines among which there is little agreement concerning an en com passing meaningful structure for scientific thought and practice.It is ironic that now that humanity is faced with impending global catastrophies, there is little consensus on a mode o f scientific practice that can secure a safe future for hu manity.In this regard the humanities have a significant role to play.
The thesis o f this article is that the phenom enon o f globalisation has profound im plications for scientific practice.It cannot and should not be ignored by the scientific community.In order to defend this thesis a historical overview o f the rise o f globalism and a description o f its current manifestation will be given.From these aspects the implications that this phenomenon has for scientific prac tice will be deduced.General features o f a more accountable m ode o f scientific thought than the scientific model which underlies globalism, will be presented.Finally, Temporality Agogics, a paradigm within the context o f History o f Educa tion, will briefly be discussed as an example o f such a more accountable m ode o f scientific thought and practice.Since the theme o f this article is so com prehen sive, only a broad overview will be presented, while at the same time an attempt will be made to focus on the essence o f the matter.

T he rise o f globalism
Where does the interdependent and interconnected nature o f our contem porary world come from?The rise o f globalism can be traced back to the scientific revo lution o f the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.This revolution led to a division between science and religion and, by emphasising the former, laid the foundation for vast development in the sphere o f the natural sciences and technology (cf.Findley & Rothney, 1990:9).Renaissance scientists like Copernicus (1473-1543), F. Bacon (1561-1626), G. Galilei (1564-1642) and R. D escartes (1596-1650) were the pioneers.Since the Renaissance, W estern man has increasingly employed science and technology to discover, change and control his world.This new method o f orientation in the world and tow ards the world led to the natural scientific discoveries that have enabled humanity to control the natural environ ment and to build up an industrial and technological civilisation.After the Indus trial Revolution in the eighteenth century intensive technological application of scientific knowledge took place and what had been a predominantly agricultural civilisation becam e an industrial civilisation.Industrial civilisation is therefore firmly rooted in a natural scientific world view (cf.De Vleeschauwer, s.a.:l-47; Capra, 1989:22-23, 31-49;Ortega Y Gasset, 1962:9-10, 62-63, 158).
Prior to the rise o f the natural sciences, human beings existed close to nature and did not attempt to control nature.The interdependence o f man and the natural w orlds w as ingrained in people.This changed, how ever, with the establishment o f an industrial and technological civilisation.Humanity now had pow er over na ture.W hile seeking to dominate nature, humanity also brought about its own socio-political emancipation.The conquest o f nature took place first (during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries) and only thereafter (during the eighteenth century) did the emancipation o f society from the old social and political order took place (cf.D e Vleeschauwer, s.a.:l).
The rise and establishment o f modem industrial civilisation w as an important phase in the rise o f globalism.The rise o f the industrial economy goes hand in hand with political and economical imperialism.The industrial economy required more natural resources and this was one o f the reasons for the imperialism o f the European pow ers during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.The rise of globalism is related to industrialism since it w as industrialism that required a globally integrated market.Because o f this the world economy is now an interdependent unity.All facets o f the economies o f all countries, such as their industries, service sectors, standards o f living, jo b creation and income levels are linked to the economies o f their trading partners.Increasing globalisation is brought about by the central function that the m arketplace has in a technological civilisation.The world market is increasingly interdependent and interconnected, (cf.Carbaugh, 1985:1, 195-196;Toffler, 1981:35, 73-74, 93-99, 101-109, 128, 297, 328-332;Van Niekerk, 1992:158-169).In the twentieth century products of the industrial civilisation like the motor car, the aeroplane and the telecommuni cation systems have given substance to the concept o f a global village (Henn, 1991:43-71;Pelton, 1981:XII, 5-6;Toffler, 1981:47-49;D e Beer, 1989:42).Through the application o f modem science and technology, humanity has created the means for overcoming the restrictions that time and space had placed on them in the past.Figuratively speaking, the world has become a small place.Industrial civilisation also had an impact on education.The development and maintenance thereof required that everybody should have at least basic education.
A system o f mass education, which began in the eighteenth century, is essential for both the maintenance o f and for meaningful participation in the sophisticated and complex societal structure that has evolved (cf. U nesco, 1985:13-14, 27-31;Ulich, 1972:39;Toffler, 1981:44).M ass education is therefore inherently part o f the form o f civilisation that led to contemporary globalism.M ass education supplies the trained manpower that is essential for the continued development and advancement o f industry and technology.At the same time it can also be used to promote globalism as an ideology.
The rise o f globalism is also related to the rise o f a uniform, popular mass culture (cf.Henn, 1991:176-195).Prior to the Industrial and the French Revolutions, society had been divided into two separate and distinct classes, the nobility and the peasants.The Industrial Revolution brought about a new class o f people, the middle class.This numerous class had the same social, econom ic and cultural features and these features together with the leisure time that the mechanization o f labour brought about, created a good market for entertainment.Thus it w as the evolvement o f the urbanized, dem ocratic middle class that enabled the evolvement o f a mass culture which is propagated by forms o f entertainment and the mass media.Through the m edia o f the twentieth century, i.e. films, radio and te levision, it is possible to reach large audiences and to influence them.
The globalistic nature o f the m ass culture that is propagated by the m edia is seen in the equalizing impact that it has on people and cultures.It breaks down diffe rences o f class, taste and culture, as well as the traditional commitment to lan guage, ethnicity and religion.Traditional and different cultural groupings are drawn into a collective communality through the uniform m ass culture.M ass pro duction and the mass media created uniform needs and people with a uniform frame o f reference and uniform expectations.Through technology m ass culture is produced and marketed as a commodity product.The contem porary film and mu sic industries are both the creators and the products o f m ass and popular culture on a global scale.Products o f a high technical quality are produced, yet they also reveal an alarming superficiality.The shallow ness o f popular culture can be attri buted to the fact that to be profitable, popular culture must serve as many people as possible and therefore its presentation is necessarily on a superficial level.
In the sphere o f religion and morality the rise o f globalism accom panied seculari zation.After the Renaissance secular humanism gradually becam e the dominant life and world view in the W estern world.The growth o f secular humanism can be directly attributed to the natural scientific m ode o f thought.In this m ode o f thought science acquires an autonomous character.Truth is sought via the scien tific method and only via this method.Science replaces religion as the measure o f truth, not only on the secular level, but also on the moral-ethical level.But science cannot answ er humanity's m ost important question, namely: w hat is the meaning and purpose o f human existence in conjunction with the meaning and purpose o f total reality.The human quest for ultimate meaning and truth is not taken into account in this mode o f thought.It is therefore not surprising that this mode o f thought led to secularism and a nihilistic refutal o f God and the super natural.Secular humanism created human beings whose actions are accountable only to human reason and not to God.M odem man orientates him self in the world through the application o f reason, not through his belief in divine provi dence.Through the natural scientific and technological domination o f the world, human beings have come to regard themselves as the m asters o f the world.There is no room for a Deity in such a world.Surrounded by a world o f human teclinological achievement, man leads a godless life.Anthropocentrism is go verned by the belief that there is no superior pow er to man.N ietzsche's maxim that God is 'dead' is therefore the most fundamental characteristic o f the modem world (cf.Vycinas, 1973:3, 9;O rtega Y Gasset, 1962:158).
In the field o f morality, humanity defines and determines its own code o f conduct.Norm s, values and moral behaviour are no longer grounded in religious belief.This phenomenon has led to the relativism and the subjectivism in the field of morality that is rampant in our secular, globalistic world.Secularism gives rise to relativism and relativism is reinforced by globalism in that the globalistic nature o f the world exposes people to different and conflicting views o f ethically 'correct' behaviour.The impression is created that none o f these views has ab solute validity and consequently, any and all behaviour becom es acceptable in a global world.Because o f secularization there is no longer a central, focal point for moral orientation.Findley and Rothney (1990:25) warn that the processes o f secularization cannot go much further without aggravating the already serious sense o f moral drift.

T he con tem p orary m anifestation o f globalism
Globalisation is manifested in all walks o f life: in science and technology, the economy, politics, religion, morality and education.The phenom enon o f globali sation is a complex and burning issue and it has changed the life-world o f tw en tieth-century people.I have already discussed globalism's relation to the modem industrial civilisation, to a system o f public education, to a uniform, popular mass culture and to secular humanism.In this section the focus will be on the crisis in which our global technological civilisation finds itself.Globalism manifests itself in a particularly destructive w ay in the current global problem s o f atomic warfare, the extensive developmental disparities between First and Third W orld countries, the energy crisis, the environmental crisis and the population explosion.The interconnected and interdependent nature o f our world is clearly illustrated through these problems which affect all people.In order to support the thesis that the phenom enon o f globalisation has profound implications for scientific practice, it will be indicated how each o f these contemporary global problem s are related to the application o f a positivistic mode o f thought.

Population explosion
Before the rise o f medical science the human population w as controlled by inter alia plagues, famine and war.Progress and improvement in medical services, sanitation and nutrition in the technological era brought down the death rate among children while simultaneously increasing life expectancy.After the Indus trial Revolution population numbers increased in Europe, with a particularly sharp increase during the nineteenth century.In the late twentieth century, how ever, the number o f births decreased in the W est due to education and econom ic growth.In this century public health care has improved worldwide.This factor, in con junction with other factors, has subsequently led to an increase in the w orld po pulation from 1.7 billion in 1900 to 5 billion in 1986 and it is expected to double again by 2050.
These numbers threaten both the man-m ade environment as well as the natural environment.It is feared that the population pressure on the environm ent may result in a global catastrophe.The population explosion also aggravates other global problems.The population problem , created by human beings, therefore affects humanity's future and it can be ascribed to the positivistic control o f na ture (cf.Findley & Rothney, 1990:11, 512-514;Peccei, 1981:31, 33;Van Niekerk, 1992:156-157).

Developmental disparities
The developmental problem can also be called the equity or the poverty problem.It is the problem o f developmental inequality betw een countries w here develop ment is m easured in terms o f technological advancement.The w orld is currently divided into a so-called developed, rich part (i.e.North America, W estern Europe and Japan) and the underdeveloped, poor part which includes approxim ately one billion people living on the verge o f starvation.The developmental problem is magnified by the rapid increase in population in the poorer parts o f the world.The division o f the world into the affluent North and the hungry South affects everybody in the globalistic, interdependent world o f today.It is, how ever, doubtful w hether it will be possible to divide the advantages o f technology on a more equitable basis in future.It should be bom in mind, how ever, that though an increase in industrialization may prom ote equity, it does also increase the disad vantages associated with a technological civilisation such as the global problem s already mentioned (Findley & Rothney, 1990:4;Gribbin, 1981:10, 55, 58;Mohr, 1973:165-166;Peccei, 1981:74-80;Van N iekerk, 1992:150-153,220-225).

Energy crisis
N ew com en's design o f a w orkable steam engine in 1712 w as the start o f the consumption o f fossil fuels such as coal and oil.These, however, cannot serve as a permanent energy source.Fossil fuels can be depleted and they also create great pollution problems.Indeed, the whole energy base o f our civilisation is now a subject o f intense debate.G reater energy efficiency in the short run and the development o f renewable, non-polluting energy sources in the long run seem to be the only viable options to the energy crisis.Till these solutions are found, fossil fuels continue to pollute us and our environment (Toffler, 1981:39, 144-MS;Findley & Rothney, 1990:517-519;Van Niekerk, 1992:153-154).

Environmental crisis
U nrestricted economic and technological growth and the excessive exploitation of the natural environment has disturbed the dynamic balance in the earth's eco systems.Because o f the supra-ideology o f the industrial era, which entails that human beings dominate nature, the exploitation o f nature has escalated to such an extent that the biosphere is sending out alarm signals.Pollution, protection o f va rious species, excessive cultivation, deforestation, desertification, acid rain, glo bal w anning, climatic change and ozone depletion are some o f the major environ mental problem s which the world has to face (Capra, 1989:24-25;Toffler, 1981: 112, 134, 245-246;Khalid, 1989:19-21;Bybee, 1991:147;Van N iekerk, 1992: 154-156, 225-227).

World peace
In the twentieth century scientific and technological progress has given humanity the ability to manufacture w eapons (like the atomic bomb) which can destroy the world.Peccei (1981:82) talks about " ... self-destruction by strictly scientific means" .The human craving for pow er through the natural scientific mode o f thought has brought us to the brink o f global disaster.W orld peace is required for the continued existence o f our globalistic world (Findley & Rothney, 1990: 530-541;Van N iekerk, 1992:148-150,217-220).
The interconnected nature o f global problems in a globalistic era makes it par ticularly difficult to address these issues.Global problems have m ade the world interdependent and interconnected because all people are threatened by these pro blems and all have a part to play in seeking solutions.Not only the politicians have a part to play.Even children are exposed to these crises in the curricula for global education in some countries (cf. Heater, 1980:16-23;Tonkin & Edwards, 1981:40;Hicks & Townley, 1982:3-4, 10;Alger & Harf, 1986:1;Pike & Selby, 1988:63-69;Van Niekerk, 1992:148-150, 217-220).O ur globalistic world, foun- The rise and manifestation o f globalism and its implications fo r science ded on the natural scientific mode o f thought, is in a state o f crisis.The scientific community must take the lead in addressing this crisis.

T h e im p lications o f globalism for science
Human beings have created a threatened and an insecure w orld through the absolutisation o f the natural scientific (calculative, positivistic or quantitative) mode o f thought which was prevalent not only in the natural sciences, but also in the human sciences.However, the optimism associated with the m odernistic belief that natural science will in time solve all problem s and that it is possible to control reality in its totality is dwindling.The 'blessings' that natural science and m odem technology have brought are being overshadowed by the natural scientific mode o f thought's failure to generate a secure, dignified and meaningful future existence for humankind.This is a disturbing thought to a mind dom inated by secular humanism, because it clearly illustrates human failure.It is also disturb ing to scientists, because it reveals the failure o f the scientific community to fore see the consequences o f the application o f a specific mode o f scientific thought which has led to the global state o f crisis.Even more disturbing to scientists, is the fact that though these crises can be analysed, no quick-fix solution has or can be presented.
This poses a serious challenge to all scientists.Human scientists m ust play their part in answering this challenge.That which has gone wrong in scientific practice needs to be rectified.There is a dire need for a more accountable scientific mode o f thought.Scientists have a moral obligation in these insecure circum stances to reflect on scientific practice and how it should be changed so that human beings can, in future, lead more secure, more dignified and more meaningful lives.
In the introduction to this article it w as stated that the many divergent paradigms and the fragmentation o f science into a multitude o f disciplines constitute part o f the problem.There appears to be no encom passing philosophy o f science which can meaningfully direct scientific practice.W hat is needed is a frame o f refe rence w hich can direct the scientific community.M odernism appears to have failed, and postmodernism too does not seem to provide the necessary answers and solutions.
A meaningful common frame o f reference can be achieved in three possible ways: * Firstly, by providing and establishing m eta-paradiginatic or meta-epistem ological criteria for the evaluation o f scientific practice.These criteria will hopefully direct scientific practice aw ay from disastrous directions (such as the crises that the positivistic orientation created).

*
Secondly, by maintaining the correct balance between a natural scientific or quantitative and a qualitative or meaning-searching mode o f thought.This means that the meaning-searching mode o f thought should give meaningful direction to quantitative thinking, which implies that the scientist will con sciously and consistently ask what the meaning and purpose o f scientific practice is.
* Thirdly, by closing the gap between science and religion that was brought about by the natural scientific orientation after the Renaissance.(See Van Niekerk, 1992:318-319.)The third option appears to be the best option since it actually includes the other two options.Religion gives meaningful answers to the human search for meaning and also provides criteria for a meaningful human existence and all human activi ties, including scientific research.The only meaningful answ er to the question o f the meaning and purpose o f human existence in conjunction with total reality is given in religion.This is why scientists should rise above the secular mode o f scientific practice which absolutised science and led to the crisis in which our globalistic world finds itself.
Globalism poses an epistemological challenge to human scientists.W e should re spond to this challenge with a more accountable scientific mode o f thought.
Bearing in mind the three possibilities that have been identified as a possible frame o f reference for meaningful scientific practice, the following is a general outline o f a more accountable scientific mode o f thought:

*
The rift that w as brought about between science and religion through the overemphasis o f a quantitative (calculative or natural scientific) mode o f thought has had tragic consequences.W e should discard purely humanistic scientific practice.This mode o f thought has jeopardized our future because it did not incorporate a meaning-searching m ode o f thought.(Smith, 1991(Smith, , 1993;;Breitenbach, 1991;Van N iekerk, 1992.)On the basis o f such a paradigm shift it should be possible to engender a more se cure, more dignified and more meaningful future for humankind in the long run.
Even if w e are pessimistic about the possibility o f a meaningful re-orientation o f our technological civilisation, w e still have the duty to prepare the w ay for such a re-orientation.

T em p orality A gogics as an exam ple o f a ccou n tab le scien tific practice
Are there examples o f such a paradigm?Yes, am ongst others Tem porality A go gics which is a paradigm employed by some scientists in the History o f Educa tion.The general outlines o f an accountable scientific m ode o f thought that was presented in the previous section w ere in fact derived from the epistemological challenge o f globalism and also from Tem porality Agogics as a paradigm.It is impossible to describe this paradigm fully within the scope o f this article (cf.Pienaar, 1974Pienaar, , 1975Pienaar, , 1976Pienaar, , 1979Pienaar, , 1980Pienaar, , 1988Pienaar, , 1990;;Breitenbach, 1991;Smith, 1977Smith, , 1983Smith, , 1987Smith, , 1991Smith, , 1993;;Van N iekerk, 1992) and therefore only some broad outlines (which are relevant to this discussion) will be presented.Those in terested can read the above sources for more information on this paradigm.
The phenomenon o f human accompaniment is described in the science of Agogics.The name Temporality Agogics indicates that in this paradigm the phe nomenon o f human accompaniment is studied from a time perspective.However, in Temporality Agogics the focus is not on knowledge about the past that can be obtained in a purely quantitative manner.The focus in Temporality Agogics is to use the know ledge about the phenomenon o f human accompaniment which is obtained from the past in order to give directives for meaningful present and future human accompaniment.
In Temporality Agogics the meaning and purpose o f human accompaniment is interpreted against the background o f the meaning and purpose o f human exis tence in conjunction with the meaning and purpose o f total reality.The meaningsearching mode o f thought is incorporated into this paradigm because it acknow ledges the intricate relationship between human accompaniment and the human search for meaning.In Temporality Agogics the meaning-searching mode o f thought is grounded in temporality.Temporality and the temporal character o f human existence make it possible to think in a meaning-searching way.One can not think meaningfully about the true nature o f meaning and truth if the temporal nature o f human existence is not taken into account.This can be illustrated by referring to the phenomenon o f human accompaniment.
The concept o f time is intricately involved in the phenomenon o f human accom paniment.A human being is bom at a specific time and dies at a specific time, and betw een birth and death human beings should learn, through human accom paniment, how to live meaningful lives.The aim o f accom panim ent is directed tow ards a meaningful human existence.This goal can only be accom plished if an ultimate destination in time -a destination which can be claim ed to be a meaning ful destination -is kept in mind.The ultimate destination o f a meaningful human existence has to be related to m an's eternal destination, which is defined by his religion.The eternal destination o f human beings is accounted for in religion.
All human accom panim ent takes place in time.This is precisely why the tempo ral nature o f human existence should be taken into account in human accom pa niment.It is impossible to understand the true nature o f being human if the tem poral dimension o f our existence is not fully com prehended.Taking this dimen sion into account does not only imply that the past, present and future o f our earthly existence is dealt with.It also implies that one should take into account that human beings feel called upon to fulfil an eternal calling related to a relig iously defined eternal destination, which gives meaning to their earthly lives.The human perception o f time includes a consciousness o f the relation betw een time and tim elessness or eternity.This consciousness is clearly m anifested in the hu man longing for security within the context o f a particular religion.The human quest for meaning is clearly related to religious belief.

The rise and manifestation o f globalism and its implications fo r science
The temporal dimension o f our existence has to be taken into account in order to be able to accompany human beings tow ards a meaningful existence.The tem po ral dimension is taken into account in Temporality Agogics, as is the meaningsearching mode o f thought, which is grounded in temporality.The meaningsearching mode o f thought should be an essential com ponent o f authentic scien tific practice.Temporality Agogics also acknow ledges that this m ode o f thought relates to the temporal nature o f human existence.An accountable scientific model should take into account that the temporal character o f human existence has important implications for scientific practice.A cadem ics should consider these implications.

C onclusion
The context o f human thinking and scientific practice should be broadened and a fragmented approach and vision o f reality avoided.Scientists can do this by re cognising and accom modating the meaning-searching m ode o f thought.In this re gard Christian scientific practice could serve as an example, since Christian science is practised within the meaningful context o f the Christian life and world view.
Science, which is practised by human beings and which has a m ajor effect on humanity in its practical application, should take the true nature o f human beings into account.Human beings should be viewed in the wholeness o f their relatedness.A secular scientific model, such as the natural scientific model, does not view human beings in the wholeness o f their relatedness to other human beings, total reality and Ultimate Reality (or G od), and there fore cannot assist or direct the human search for meaning.A secure future for humanity can only be built on a scientific model that takes cognisance of the fact that human beings do not only relate to things and to other human beings, but also to Ultimate Reality/God.Scientific practice is characterised by openness, since scientific research is a human search for truth and validity.However, Truth and M eaning in its pu rest form, that is God, can never be made an object o f scientific research or be explained in a scientific way.H ow ever open scientific research may claim to be, an accountable scientific mode o f thought will also have to acknowledge that science has limitations.*Anaccountable scientific mode o f thought should acknow ledge that scien tific practice is a normative undertaking.A totally objective, value-free, neutral or presuppositionless type o f science is impossible.For this reason academic freedom should not be absolutised and accountability on the part o f scientists must not be underemphasised.The values and norms under lying a scientific model and the scientist's convictions in this regard should be debated and evaluated from a meaning-searching perspective.