Towards a sustainable society : a profile of social accents

Towards a sustainable society: a profile of social accents Against the background o f the pending global environmental crisis, this article argues that the solutions to the crisis are as much part o f the socio­ political fie ld as they are o f the technological and scientific fields. Consequently a number o f social accents that should be addressed in the attempt to achieve a sustainable society are elucidated. These accents include revision o f current value systems characterized mainly by economic variables, the curbing o f population growth rates, expansion o f human rights, alleviation o f poverty, universal access to education, health sen’ices and family planning. The redistribution o f and access to natural resources, community involvement and the fostering o f a political will to address these issues should also be reflected on


P reface
The biggest challenges and problems facing modem societies arise from the interaction between people and their environment.In fact, warnings are widely acknow ledged that mankind is heading for a global environmental crisis (or crises, as some believe) o f a catastrophic extent because o f the nature o f this interaction.
Increasing aw areness o f the potential seriousness o f such an environmental crisis has placed environmental issues high on socio-political and academic agendas, especially since the sixties.Although broad consensus has been reached with regard to the reality o f the pending crisis, the extent and seriousness o f many environmental questions still remain a topic o f debates.At the same time, it seems as if there is little consensus regarding the causes o f and possible solutions for the crisis: what is regarded by one interest group as a cause, is often seen by another as a solution.
T he m ost critical environm ental problem s, from w hich all others arise, are our ow n attitudes and values (R aven et a!., 1993:564).
Nevertheless, there seems to be w ide consensus that a shift in em phasis and a re orientation in all areas are crucial in order to prevent the realization o f some o f the envisaged scenarios.In other words: the answer(s) to the environmental crisis is (are) just as much part o f the social, economic and political fields as they are o f the technological and scientific fields.W e will therefore argue that strategies which are limited to only the latter two fields in order to achieve sustainability, is a futile exercise.After all, human beings are at the centre o f the environmental crisis, both as catalysts and victims.This article is therefore embedded in the principle that a necessary (although not sufficient) step towards coping with environmental problems is the adoption o f an environmental ethic which stresses the importance o f humanity living in harmony with ecological systems and creating human societies that are permanently sustainable.As such our argument departs from the ecological social paradigm (ESP) which, since the early seventies, has started to redefine the way human beings used to perceive their environment and em phasize the interdependent relationship w hich exists between humanity and the natural world.Against this background, a number o f social accents that should be considered to be essential prerequisites for a sustainable society, are elucidated in this article.M ore specifically, this dis cussion involves an identification o f the social conditions for a sustainable society and an outline o f those values that ought to be in congruency with such a system.For this purpose the nature o f the environmental crisis is outlined in order to sketch the context in which the call for sustainable development arises.

The nature o f the environm ental crisis
Against the background o f the "Earth Summit" held in 1992 and a growing universal concern about the conservation o f the environment, it has become unrealistic to address the themes o f sustainable development and sustainable societies without involving the environmental crisis and the resource basis o f the earth as central issues.With the world population approaching the six billion mark, population issues are paramount in the search for sustainability.Some comments are made in the discussion with regard to this, after which the issues o f pollution and the depletion o f resources are briefly considered as two further umbrella components o f the environmental crisis.

Overpopulation and overconsumption
Few issues in the environmental debate are so controversial and sensitive as that o f "population" .The fact that some populations, and especially human populations, increase much faster than the resources on which they depend for their survival, is not a recent reason for concern.Scientists and philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, Benjamin Franklin and o f course Thomas M althus in his famous E ssay on the Principles o f Population (1798) have all entered the population debate at one stage or another -a debate that w as fuelled by pressing questions such as: How many people are 'too m any'?How many people can be sustained by the natural resources o f the earth?H ow can m ankind's impact on the earth be controlled in order to ensure that the planet's life-supporting systems do not fall apart?
The past few decades have seen these and similar questions evolve into an emotional and highly politicized debate.Different interest groups and positions have been identified as different answers and solutions were offered to the question to what extent growing populations should be blamed for the environ mental problems which we face today.Not only are the extreme positions in this debate o f an ideological nature, but they are also anchored in political and economic agendas and further fanned by fierce competition.One argument is represented by the neo-M althusians, who em phasize the negative effects o f population growth.This school argues that as populations are potentially able to grow in an unlimited manner while resources are physically limited -for example, the available agricultural land is limited -"over-population" is inevitable.Various prominent authors in the industrialized, developed countries (especially those o f the Northern hemisphere) thus blame the rapidly growing population numbers in the poorer, developing countries (especially those o f the Southern hem isphere) for the current environmental crisis.Supporters o f the over population argument stress the fact that famine, especially in the rural areas o f the developing countries, stems directly from high population growth rates that cannot be reconciled with the carrying capacity o f the environment in these countries.For example, approximately one third o f the population o f sub-Saharan A frica is chronically under-nourished, while the food requirement o f this region is expected to double during the next two decades, given the projected population growth rates (Dyson, 1994:375-383).
The other side o f the coin is represented by those who hold a more enlightened, but equally simplistic view: Over-consumption o f resources by the prosperous populations o f the industrialized countries and the privileged minorities in the developing countries, and not over-population p er se, is responsible for global environmental degradation and the accompanying social problems.This point of view is often kindled by accusations o f an inappropriate technology, social inequality and exploitation, which all serve as a shield against the onslaught o f the "over-population"-theory supporters.The "over-consum ption" school points out that, although the developed countries accom modate only 20% o f the world population, they use 80% o f the resources.In fact, almost 70% o f all metals, 85% o f the wood on earth and 60% o f the total food yield are consumed by the elite in the South and the wealthy countries in the North (Lass, 1995:3).The life style o f the average European therefore produces 2 000 times more toxic w aste than that o f the average peasant in Africa.If these levels persist, the approximately 57 million people who will be bom into a high-consumption life style during the 1990s will pollute the earth far more than the expected 911 million who will be bom during the same period in the developing countries o f Asia, Africa and Latin America.
A third school in the population debate believes that there is no problem.According to this school human beings are the most important resource and human innovation will ensure that development and technology will be able to handle any crisis that may occur.In the meanwhile, more people mean larger markets for products.At the root o f this argument is the assumption that economic development and growth are prerequisites for success in the pursuit o f a sustainable existence.However, it is at this point that a paradox presents itself: Thoughtless economic development is an important factor in the degradation o f the environment, while the latter factor plays a key role in the impoverishment o f rural populations.In fact, it is the em phasis on economic and technological development (in an attempt, inter alia, to balance the growing population numbers) which in many respects is fundamental to the next two environmental problems.

Depletion o f resources
A direct consequence o f increasing population pressure and over-consum ption is the depletion o f life-supporting resources.Although some problems in this regard are o f a regional nature, it is especially the global issues that are in the limelight.Examples o f this problem are the deforestation o f tropical rain forests and the consequent atmospheric changes (such as the so-called greenhouse effect), the disappearance o f species and habitats, the breakdown o f the ozone layer which in turn can be traced to increasing levels o f pollution in the atmosphere, as well as soil erosion owing to over-grazing and encroachm ent o f the desert.The decrease in the available agricultural land due to the increasing loss o f fertile top-soil is widely regarded as a crucial cause o f the declining food production in developing rural areas.M ore recently, the alarm-bells started ringing with the realization that the earth may be faced with a w ater crisis.It is estimated that the global w ater requirement doubles every 21 years, while approxim ately 80 countries are already experiencing w ater shortages (Capraro, 1995:4).Eighty percent o f all deaths in the developing countries have already been associated with polluted w ater or a general lack o f water.The inevitable results o f an ever decreasing w ater supply are, among others, food shortages, political tension and conflict.

Pollution
Air, water and soil pollution are probably m oie familiar to many people than most o f the other environmental problems.One o f the m ost w ide-ranging problem s that can be listed here, is the increasing release o f carbon dioxide ( C 0 2) as a result o f the burning o f fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) -a phenomenon which, in certain scientific circles, is held responsible for the alleged gradual heating o f the atmosphere o f the earth, for example.The elimination and associated burning o f the tropical forests in developing countries in an attempt to supply agricultural land and grazing for a growing population, further contribute to the above-mentioned problem.Contrary to this, pollution problems such as acid rain, oil pollution by tankers and the spilling o f chemical and nuclear waste are typical pollution issues that are created mainly by the industrialized countries.
W hen w e look specifically at South Africa, it becomes evident that the country is in many respects a micro-cosmos o f the issues regarding population, pollution and resource depletion with which the whole world is confronted.The South African environment is, however, not only hampered by the typical problems that are associated with developing countries (such as a high population growth), but also by those that are associated mainly with industrialized countries (for example air pollution).
During the period 1970-1993 the South African population has grown at a rate of approxim ately 2,5% per annum -a growth rate which annually adds another 1,2 million people to the country's population.World Bank estim ates indicate that the average annual GDP growth rate declined from 3,2% for the period 1970 1980 to 0,9% during 1980-1993.Allowing for the above population growth rate, a negative average annual growth rate o f -0,2% .inG N P p e r capita w as estimated for the period 1980-1993 (Draft W hite Paper for a Population Policy, 1996:13).These figures point at a decline (instead o f an improvement) in the standard o f living o f most South Africans in the recent past.Such a decline is likely to have been more acute among the economically disadvantaged groups, who constitute the majority o f the population.As is the case elsew here in the world, it is especially the poor, rural communities that are also inclined to show a high birth rate.In the deep niral areas o f the Northern Province and KwaZulu-Natal a total fertility rate o f six and higher is common (the average number o f children per woman).This figure is almost twice as high as the world average.
The results o f the high population growth rate can be found, for example, in soil erosion, the encroachment o f the desert, deforestation and general socio economic degradation.As illustrated above, at the beginning o f the 1990s South Africa, like most developing countries, was poorer in term s o f p e r capita income than during the early 1980s.The situation w as adversely affected by the political experimentation o f the past, through which access to and distribution o f resources w ere manipulated socially and politically along racial lines.Population pressure and the over-intensive management o f agricultural land resulted in South Africa losing almost 25% o f all available top-soil since the beginning o f the century.Currently a further 300-400 million tons are annually being lost (Salus, 1992:9).
In a country where only an estimated 13,5% o f the soil surface is suitable for crop cultivation, sustained food production to provide for the needs o f the growing domestic requirements is indeed in jeopardy.
A few other environmental problems facing South Africa include the following: • The rapid eastward expansion o f the Karoo, which can be attributed to the fact that this region is approximately 30% over-populated by cattle.
• The approximately 125 million tons o f gas emission annually released by in dustries in the eastern regions o f M pumalanga, which causes some o f the highest air pollution levels in the world.
• The more than 7 million cubic metres o f firewood annually chopped down as the main source o f fuel for 12 million rural and urban inhabitants.
If South A frica's problems with regard to the m ost valuable o f all natural resources -water -are included, it is not to be w ondered at that some observers summarize the situation in the country as " ... nothing short o f committing ecological suicide" (Sunter, 1992:153).To escape from this situation and to follow a path o f sustainable development, nothing less than a change o f value systems and life-styles will initially be required -a change that must above all be associated with the fostering o f an environmental ethic among all South Africans.

Indecent value system s and life-styles -the source o f the environmental crisis?
The interrelated issues o f population growth, depletion o f resources and pollution caused an ecological crisis -a crisis that does not merely originate from problem s in the natural environment, but which also originates from problem s related to economic systems, political choices and social inequalities.The imm ediate results o f the ecological crisis extend over national borders: it is estim ated that in 1991 there had already been more ecological fugitives in the world than political fugitives -a situation that will probably gain momentum in future (Gordon & Suzuki, 1991:100).This ecological crisis holds a threat to the integrity o f natural systems o f which human beings form part of, and therefore for the existence o f mankind itself.Furthermore, it is a ecological crisis that is anchored in the crisis o f the human "spirit" .In other words, it originates from a crisis in the value system o f mankind, and takes shape in the quest for materialistic life-styles.
Technological progress and economic growth, which brought about much prosperity and improved circumstances for many people, becam e the primary objectives o f almost all societies.The effect that this has had on the environment is, however, often argued away or simply ignored.The solutions to the environ mental crisis are therefore not to be found only in new technology, as w e will see at a later stage, but also especially in the way we see ourselves and the environment around us.This poses an enormous challenge to policy-makers in their attem pts to reconcile the needs and expectations o f a growing population with the limitations o f the natural environment.M ore specifically, it requires a revolutionary re-orientation in the technological, economic and socio-political arenas to make provision for the welfare o f mankind and the survival o f the planet.The ultimate objective is a sustainable society in order to ensure the chances o f survival o f the life-supporting ability o f the earth and its inhabitants.
Before the social requirements for such a sustainable environment are elucidated, it is necessary to focus briefly on the question: "W hat is sustainability?"

W h at is sustainability?
The concept o f sustainability refers to the ability o f a system to endure.
H ow ever, it is not indicative o f the attainment o f a final end stage or a stable, "perfectly balanced" society.M uch more relevantly, it implies " ... a condition o f dynamic equilibrium where perturbations are acceptable, even welcomed, in order to test the capabilities o f the system (including a human system) to persist over the long term " (Reed & Slaymaker, 1993:725).Sustainability can therefore be defined as the continuous working o f certain necessary and desired properties o f both the natural environment and the socio-political system.Therefore, to extend this definition, a sustainable environment may be said to be one that can exist over generations without the resource base becoming depleted, or pollution reaching such proportions that the natural environm ent's ability to absorb it is exceeded.
The concept o f " sustainable development" is, however, more difficult to define due to its multi-disciplinary nature.In view o f the fact that the concept of sustainable development is approached from different directions, there is much variation in the descriptions as the different disciplines usually em phasize unique facets.One description that is probably the most widely accepted, is that o f the Brundtland Commission, officially known as the W orld Commission on Environment and Development (W CED -a commission which originated during 1987).This commission describes sustainable development as " ... development that m eets the needs o f the present without compromising the ability o f future generations to meet their own needs" (quoted from O ' Riordan, 1995:22).Implicit in this view is the acceptance o f a reasonable access by all populations to basic resources, both currently and in future.This means that poor communities must be given the opportunity for a sustained existence through, among other things, the transfer o f applicable technology and capacity-building in science and management.This principle is also reflected in the following com ponents o f sustainable development as it is described by the W CED and recognized by the Economic Commission o f Africa (a commission which came into being during 1987): • Future generations must be taken into consideration in any planning process.
• Poor communities o f the world must receive special attention.
• Special care must be taken to preserve a fair part o f the current resource base for this and future generations.
In the light o f the above it is clear that the environmental issues that w ere dealt with in paragraph two, all stand in the w ay o f sustainable development; in other words, they are elements o f «on-sustainability It is especially the poor, and specifically the poor communities in rural areas o f developing countries, which are forced to follow non-sustainable paths for the sake o f survival.In Africa, including South Africa, sustainable development can only be achieved if the process includes the poor and marginalized communities and if it focuses on the improvement o f the quality o f life in such communities.
However, various studies have indicated that Africa is confronted by a series o f interrelated economic and environmental challenges -a reality which indicates that development up to now has not been sustainable.The main factors that cause non-sustainable development in Africa can be classified, according to Kakonge and Imvbore (1994:2-5) under the following headings: drought and desertification, soil erosion, population pressure, poverty and political instability.
The close relationship between the natural and the socio-political environments pointed out earlier, can be discerned in these factors.
The reality o f this interrelationship also has the inherent implication that the necessity for sustainable development can no longer be regarded only in economic and techno-ecological terms.An interpretation o f the problem that is mainly based on economic and/or ecological explanations and solutions, is biased and ignores the equally important role o f social com ponents in sustainability.In fact, Cem ea (1994:7) points out that " failure to recognize the determinant role o f the 'social actors' has doomed many programs trying to induce developm ent" .A plea for "putting people first" in the determination o f policies and developm ent programmes and even for direct involvement in development, is therefore no radical idea; it is rather a realistic one.It merely m eans that the central position o f social actors and their institutions must be acknow ledged and taken into account in sustainable development.In other w ords, sustainability m ust be "socially constructed" ; that is, social and economic program m es must be implemented purposefully.For this reason the pursuit o f a sustainable society must be approached as a triple task -socio-political, economic and ecological.
The remainder o f this discussion, however, will only focus on the social com ponent, although economic and political aspects may obviously also come into play.

A paradigm shift in environm ental view s?
Apart from the w ell-considered choice o f technology and energy consumption, as well as legal limitations on resource utilization and pollution, sustainability also implies radically changed life-styles and values, whether this takes place voluntarily, out o f necessity or both.A change in life-style (for example lower levels o f consumption in order to counter the depletion o f resources), however, would be so radical, that Nebel and W right (1996:13) suggest a fundamental paradigm shift in m an's view o f the world.Paradigm shifts are important changes in the w ay in which people see the world and their place and role in it.Although paradigm shifts are associated with controversy and conflict during their initial presentation, a new era is subsequently introduced as know ledge and under standing increase.A few examples o f such scientific views that brought about w atersheds in people's way o f thinking are the findings o f Copernicus ("the earth revolves around the sun"), Newton ("all objects gravitate tow ards one another") and Darwin ("mankind is part o f the animal kingdom").
The question arises w hether w e are now in the process o f an even more significant paradigm shift, namely a shift from an " old" view o f the world to a view that is focused on the environment.According to the "old" view, plants, animals, minerals and other resources exist for the exclusive purpose o f serving human beings.To treat these resources merely as consumable resources would therefore not only be acceptable, but would in fact be the correct and proper way o f doing things.It is further implied and accepted that there are no limits to consumption, and that conservation would therefore be unnecessary.This view o f the w orld, which dates back to the early Judaic-Christian times, has over many centuries formed the basis o f the economy and life-styles o f W estern civilization.
The world view propagated and promoted by those who are concerned with the environment is in almost every respect the antithesis o f the "old" view.
A ccording to environmentalists the world (and therefore the availability o f resources) is not limitless.Unlimited consumption is therefore not sustainable, which means that the continued welfare o f mankind depends on conservation and protection programmes.In short, according to Nebel and W right (1996:13) the new view implies a paradigm shift " ... from seeing humans as the centre o f things, free to ride over nature in any manner possible, to seeing nature as the centre and humans needing to leam to accom modate to it" .This in fact means that developed countries (and developed communities/groups in countries) can no longer pursue their own economic interests and conveniently "forget" about the less developed countries/communities/groups as if they w ere separate entities which had no effect on the welfare and future o f the rest.In the w ords o f Gordon and Suzuki (1991:180) " that basically means the rich must live more simply so that the poor may simply live" .
The appeal from environmental circles for a change in the values and life-styles o f people for the sake o f " general human interest" can, however, very easily fall into a vacuum.This cannot only be attributed to the irrational nature o f mankind, but to the exceptionally unequal distribution o f pow er to make a significant impact on global, or even local environmental changes.Consequently, numerous com munities are automatically caught up in patterns o f daily activity that can be destructive to the environment, such as the cutting down o f forests for the collection o f firewood.Only if investment in programmes such as jo b creation and electrification (to use the example mentioned previously) increases dramatically, will individuals be placed in positions where they can make a significant contribution with regard to energy options, for example.

Social accents in sustainable developm ent
Ideally, environmental remedy, sustainable development and the alleviation o f poverty should therefore complement one another as concurrent processes.In conjunction with this, various studies suggest that, with regard to the relationship between poverty and environmental degradation, the marginalization o f rural communities is promoted by three factors especially, namely (i) high population growth; (ii) soil consolidation and modernization/mechanization in agriculture; and (iii) general inequalities with regard to ownership o f land (Barrow, 1995:47).
In order to break the circle o f poverty linked to high population growth and environmental degradation, large-scale social reform -especially adequate social aid -will be necessary.With regard to this, Hansen (1994:337 -em phasis added) states the following: W e m ust create conditions -through selective, creative and eth ically sound social investm ents -w om en and couples to seek a lo w e r n u m b er o f surviving children.I f anything, no developm ent assistance appears to yield higher econom ic returns and include m ore sustained econom ic grow th than basic investm ents in hum an capital, i.e. prim ary and secondary education, appropriate extension services for both genders, and p rim ary health care.
Development strategies can make an extensive contribution to achieving this goal by not only investing in the economic and technical requirem ents for sustainability, but also in the creation o f socio-organisational structures.Seen broadly and more specifically, this means that specific social accents that have an effect on sustainable development must form the basis o f development programmes.While policy-makers are considering w ays to prom ote sustainable development, it is therefore o f the utmost importance that strategies should be developed that recognize and address these social aspects in order to arrest the dow nw ard spiral o f increasing poverty and the degradation o f the natural environment.Although the following accents in no way form a comprehensive list or represent a particular priority sequence, the critical areas could nevertheless include the following:

Revision o f value systems
Individual and cultural value systems will have to be revised incisively, especially with regard to economic choices.The management and utilization o f resources have until now been almost exclusively driven by the economy, without taking the consequences for the environment in general into account.The narrow focus on economic growth will therefore have to make w ay for a more balanced perspective, characterized by a focus on sustainable development, environmental health and quality o f life.Such a change in values could, on the one hand, be brought about by extensive "resocializing actions" which in turn should lead to the internalization o f strong environmental ethics as a result.On the other hand, and concurrent with this, pressing and visual statutory intervention on the part o f the government, aimed at crucial issues regarding population, pollution and the depletion o f resources, will have to be the mainstay o f any information programme.

Curbing o f population growth rates
Stability in population growth must enjoy priority in all countries.This is not only applicable to developing countries, but also to the industrialized countries w here the populations use a disproportionately large part o f the earth's resources and yields.There is no hope for a sustainable society if population growth rates do not drop to at least replacement level, and no hope for sustainable develop ment in rural areas without stability in population growth among rural populations.

Expansion o f human rights
Basic human rights, and in particular w om en's rights in developing countries, will have to be fully expanded on a universal scale.By ensuring that all women enjoy the full range o f social, economic and political opportunities, environmental problem s will be addressed in two ways.In the first instance, such action will sharply accelerate the pursuit o f global population stability, as an increase in the socio-econom ic status o f women is directly linked to a decrease in fertility rates.Secondly, all potential talent is required for the establishment o f a sustainable society.Consequently, the loss o f any individual potential that could make a contribution to this attempt cannot be afforded.Ultimately the expansion o f basic human rights to all women will, among others, require an obligation from governments in developing countries to ensure that women enjoy access to educational institutions and proper health care -access they are still denied in many o f these countries.

Alleviation o f poverty
The alleviation o f poverty, especially in rural areas, must be actively supported.
Higher levels o f income will enable the poor to consider long-term options, which in turn would also yield better dividends for resource utilization.In conjunction with this, authorities will have to ensure that m acro-econom ic policy directions that have the objective o f addressing poverty through stable and broad income growth do not discriminate against agriculture as the most basic labour-intensive sector.Job creation and income growth, even under the m ost favourable circumstances, can take several decades to alleviate poverty significantly without destroying the sensitive environmental regions (any further).There is therefore a need for directed policy guidelines regarding the immediate utilization o f recources, as well as the production risks that poor, rural com munities will be faced with and which may lead to the (further) deterioration o f the environment.

Universal education, health services and family planning
Improved access to education, health and family planning -which are funda mental to most o f the strategies to alleviate poverty -takes a central place when environmental interests are considered.
A ccess to quality education could potentially encourage the more judicious utilization o f resources and at the same time, could increase the options for the generation o f income, other than through the utilization o f natural resources.Furthermore, access to public health services and information would enable poor communities to take m easures that would lower environmental health risks.In addition, an increase in the funding o f family-planning programmes would contribute tow ards counteracting, to some extent, the potential o f high population growth to aggravate the deterioration o f the environment.

Availability o f resources
Improved access to services and infrastructure could reduce the environmental problems that face the poor (especially women).In this regard, the redistribution o f and access to natural resources, in particular, should be scrutinized.In this way, for example, the redistribution o f land would create more jo b opportunities and reduce the extent o f migration to sensitive resource areas.In practice, however, redistribution often involves extensive social upheaval and uncertainty that are often met with resistance by those who have vested interests in it.A favourable environmental impact could possibly be brought about by concentrating on situations where uncertainty already exists with regard to property rights or w here redistribution can rapidly take place.

Community involvement
Because people are the beneficiaries as well as the victims o f all development activities, their active participation in the development process is the key to success.If w e do not realize the need for the promotion o f the welfare o f people by means o f a strategy o f "putting people first", environmental programmes are doomed to fail.The poor in particular are apparently hit the hardest by environmental degradation, while they are also the least equipped to protect themselves.At the same time, however, the poor also cause much o f the damage to the environment because o f their ignorance, lack o f resources and a short-term disposition with regard to survival.The challenge lies in actively obtaining participation in development projects.M ore specifically, according to Serageldin (1994:5), such involvement entails progress on three levels: • Firstly, those who will potentially be affected by development programmes must become more involved in the designing phase o f the programmes.
• Secondly, local expertise must be utilized better in the designing and implementation o f programmes.
• In the third place it is necessary to build capacity in order to determine the social impact o f policy points and investments.
Ultimately, a strategy o f "putting people first" contains an inherent promise of lasting sustainability o f development programmes and better environmental management.

The presence o f a political will
Especially in South Africa it is o f crucial importance to realize that addressing environmental and, specifically, population issues with a view to sustainable development cannot take place in isolation from the w ider political transformation in the country.After all, sustainable development must grow from a political will.The challenge lies in the establishment o f an environmental and population policy w hich is free from any hidden political agendas and vested interests -a policy that can serve as a framework to improve the quality o f life o f many South Africans.Seen this way, there can only be talk o f sustainable development and eventually o f survival if the essential changes in value systems as a prerequisite firstly gain acceptance on government level and among policy-makers.

C onclusion
Apart from the fact that South Africa reflects various manifestations o f an environmental crisis, the nature o f the crisis is locally com plicated by the sociohistorical context o f the society.M ore specifically, the South African environ ment is the victim o f socio-political policy orientations o f the past.A policy that was based on favouritism and disparagement eventually caused a melting-pot o f environmental problems that show characteristics o f both the problem s o f industrialized countries and those o f developing countries.In the past, for example, actions taken by the authorities to address some o f these problem s (for example the Population Development Programme aimed at the high fertility rate) were greeted with scepticism in certain circles because o f a lack o f political legitimacy and acceptability in the broad social context.Such "development programmes" were then also often associated with authoritarian and unilateral actions, without involving those persons who w ere directly affected as participants in the development process.
In the essential search for sustainability it is important to avoid the m istakes o f the past.Because the central authority, to a great extent, determ ines the climate for success, the broadest possible political legitimacy in conjunction with a collective political will is o f cardinal importance.Furthermore, the search for sustainability must be founded on an approach that focuses on people, in other w ords one in which all development actions are aimed at the improvement o f the quality o f life o f human beings within a quality environment.Only then will the path be prepared for a change in values among the broader community -a change that will be decisive in respect o f the survival o f the planet and its inhabitants.